In some contexts, the literal meaning of an utterance differs from a separate meaning which must be inferred by the listener given the context. The importance of context is illustrated with examples (1) and (2) below. In these examples, speaker B replies with the same response, but what is meant is different. Crucially, what meaning is derived from B's response depends on the question in the preceding context.
(1) A: Have you ever taken a Linguistics course?
B: Well, I took Pragmatics.
(2) A: Did you take Pragmatics and did you like it?
B: Well, I took Pragmatics.
KEY POINT: The study of pragmatics is often identified as the study of what is meant beyond what is said.
There are different conceptualisations of language. The following two represent two extreme views of how language works:
The first view focuses purely on evaluating the truth of propositions, whereas the second focuses on use. The second approach is particularly important because many utterances are not used to make true/false statements.
Given that not all utterances are used to make true/false statements, one can ask what it is they are occasionally used to do instead. When speakers do something other than make a true/false statement, they may be said to be performing a type of action. Those actions include questioning, commanding, requesting, threatening, among others. In fact, the event of making a statement, of informing a listener, is itself an action that can be performed with language. In the case of an utterance that informs (i.e., a statement), the literal meaning is all there is.
However, the literal meaning conventionally associated with a particular utterance form can differ from the intended one. In such cases there is a distinction between the literal meaning and the inferred meaning. Imagine you're in a room with someone who says one of the following:
(3) I'm cold.
(4) Can you close the window?
(5)I'd be much obliged if you closed the window.
(6)You might want to close the window.
(7)May I ask you to close the window?
(8)Do me a favor with the window.
(9)Did you forget the window?
For sentence (3), the literal meaning is that the speaker's body temperature is below normal. The intended meaning is much more than that: namely, that the speaker requests that the hearer close the window. Sentence (3) can be paraphrased as "I'm informing you that I am cold". The illocutionary force conventionally associated with an utterance of that type is one of informing. When uttered in a particular context, though, the intended force is a request (to close the window).
Examples like (3-9) highlight the importance of inferencing in uncovering the meaning that a speaker intends.
To go on to section 5.2 on "Informativity and conversational implicature", click here.